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Level II (Monitoring)

The action and focus for these species is monitoring (M). Declining population trend and habitat loss are not known to be significant at this point. Includes species of which Wyoming has a high percentage of and responsibility for the breeding population (R), species whose stability (S) may be unknown (S?), species that are peripheral (P) for breeding in the habitat or state, or additional knowledge (K) may be needed.

Common Loon

Primary Habitat Type: Wetlands and Aquatic

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Common Loon (COLO) Gavia immer Level II M	~Grassy shorelines and islands, including grasses, sedges, and rushes	~Territories usually include an area of shallow water with emergent vegetation ~Lakeshore at least partially forested	~Requires lakes of ≥10 acres; nesting success is poorer on lakes that are <25 acres ~Water clarity (minimum visibility of 3 to 4 feet) is important, as loons are visual predators ~Water depth >6 feet to prevent winter kill of fish ~Lakes that remain ice-free for ≥4 months to allow young to fledge ~Islands or secluded shorelines (e.g. quiet bays) for nesting ~Steep slope adjacent to shoreline for an underwater approach to the nest	~Territory may range from 10 to 500 acres ~Nest at elevations between 6,000 and 8,000 feet	~Sensitive to human disturbances and water level fluctuations ~Requires abundant populations of small to mid-sized fish ~Strong fidelity to breeding territory ~Will use artificial nesting platforms ~Winters south to northern Mexico on coasts, bays, and estuaries

Found on lakes across most of Wyoming during migration, but nests only in northwestern Wyoming. Lakes that are suitable for loon breeding habitat include those that are at least 10 acres (4 ha), although reproductive success is better on lakes that are greater than 25 acres (10 ha); are free of human disturbances or have areas that are secluded from human activity; are between 6,000 and 8,000 feet (1830 and 2440 m) in elevation; have clear water with a minimum visibility of 10 to 13 feet (3 to 4 m), as loons are visual predators; have islands or protected shore areas for nesting and raising young; have abundant populations of small to mid-sized fish; are greater than 6 feet (2 m) deep to prevent winter kill of fish; and remain ice free for at least 4 months to allow young to fledge. Ideal nesting lakes also generally have at least partially forested, rocky shorelines; an area of shallow water with emergent vegetation; and a steep slope adjacent to the shoreline for an underwater approach to the nest. Builds a primitive platform nest of mud and vegetation, placed on the ground no more than 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) from the water's edge. Will use artificial nesting platforms. Eggs (1 to 2, 89 mm) are olive-brown or olive-green, and sparsely marked with black or brown. Feeds by diving from the surface and pursuing fish; may also take some aquatic invertebrates, especially crustaceans. Winters south to northern Mexico on coasts, bays, and estuaries. Is threatened by loss of nesting habitat. May be threatened by acid rain, which kills fish that are used as food. Is intolerant of human disturbances, which may cause nest desertion. Nests may be flooded by boat wakes or water level fluctuation. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Harrier, Sandhill Crane, and Canada Goose.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Common Loon in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain the suitability of currently used Common Loon nesting territories.

2) Protect large, clear, deep lakes throughout the state from habitat degradation.

3) Maintain water quality to sustain substantial populations of small to mid-sized fish as a food source for Common Loons.

Recommendations

1) Protect all current and traditional Common Loon nesting sites from development and degradation. Because loons exhibit strong year-to-year fidelity to previous nest sites, there is a high probability that they will reuse nests and nurseries if these areas are not developed or degraded. When possible, two or three alternate sites with characteristics of preferred nesting areas should be protected on each breeding lake. Small islands should receive complete protection from development. Undeveloped buffer zones of at least 500 feet (150 m) should be left on either side of nest sites and nursery areas.

2) Protect all areas with characteristics suitable for nesting and chick rearing, even if actual use has not been documented.

3) Maintain vegetation buffer zones to block siltation, pesticide, and fertilizer runoff into lakes.

4) Maintain stable water levels throughout the nesting season in lakes where Common Loons are breeding. Rising water levels can flood nests and, although small drawdowns may be acceptable if distances between nests and the water's edge are not greatly increased, significant lake level subsidence may cause nest desertion or loss of newly-hatched chicks.

5) Avoid disturbing nesting areas, as loons are very sensitive to human disturbance. During times of human intrusion, incubating loons slip off nests, swim underwater, and emerge at a distance, which leaves the nests open to predation. During disturbances after hatching, chicks are dropped off the adult's back, and are left near the shore, where they may be vulnerable to predation.

6) Restrict access to Common Loon nesting territories during the breeding season. Limit or prohibit activities such as boating, fishing, swimming, camping, and picnicking near nest sites and in nursery areas. In some cases, posting signs to discourage visitors may be effective. However, signs may also draw attention to nesting sites and may be ineffective when enforcement is not possible. In such cases, efforts to educate the public may be the most reasonable method of reducing disturbance.

7) Educate the public about the natural history and conservation needs of loons. Most human-related loon problems stem from ignorance, not intent. Public education can include posters and information at marinas and other lake access points; informational brochures; press releases; and lectures, slide programs, and other presentations. Visitors can be required to attend an educational program before entering a wilderness or recreational area with breeding loons.

8) Establish boat engine horsepower limitations and/or speed limits on lakes where Common Loons are breeding, and strictly enforce boating restrictions. Motorboats and personal watercraft (e.g. jet skis) produce waves that can destroy nests and create disturbances that can cause egg or chick loss.

9) Consider known loon nest sites and nesting territories when establishing new campgrounds or campsites. Close present campsites or campgrounds near known loon nesting sites and designate specific campsites well away from nesting loons. Since loons prefer to nest on small islands when they are available, camping should be prohibited on islands, and other uses of islands should be discouraged or, if necessary, prohibited.

10) Consider installing and maintaining artificial nest platforms where fluctuating water levels or the lack of suitable nest sites is limiting Common Loon reproduction. Artificial nest platforms may improve nesting success on lakes that lack natural islands, have poor shoreline nesting habitat, or have a history of low productivity. Platforms rise and fall with water levels and can counteract extreme fluctuations on lakes where loons are not considered in water management plans. Platforms alone are unlikely to induce nesting on unoccupied lakes or territories, and should not be viewed as an easy alternative to the protection of natural nest sites. Artificial nest platforms should not be used where loons are already nesting successfully or where natural nest sites are already available, because they require yearly maintenance, increase dependence on long-term human interest, and attract human attention.

11) Construct artificial nest platforms of five 6- to 8-foot (1.8- to 2.4-m) cedar logs, approximately 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter. Notch the logs at both ends, shape them into a square frame with one cross-log, and join them with #20 galvanized spikes. Staple a 5x5-foot (1.5x1.5 m) piece of heavy plastic snow fencing mesh to the bottom of each frame, wrapping it halfway up the sides from underneath, and making sure there are no protrusions or wild ends that might injure a bird. Attach 3/16-inch (0.5-cm) wire cable to two opposite corners of the raft with cable clamps and secure the cables to two cement block anchors. Fill the raft with 4 to 6 bushels of duff, loose leaves, twigs, and roots, and plant it with low-growing vegetation indigenous to the natural nesting area. Because loons begin nesting very soon after ice-out, install nesting platforms within 2 weeks after ice-out. Place platforms in areas of minimal human disturbance, out of the direct path of prevailing summer winds and waves, in 10 to 30 feet (3 to 10 m) of water and approximately 100 to 165 feet (30 to 50 m) from shore. Completed platforms may last for 3 or 4 years, but in some cases, especially in unprotected locations, they may blow to shore during the spring or fall and have to be pulled back into the lake or replaced.

American White Pelican

Primary Habitat Type: Aquatic

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
American White Pelican (AWPE) Pelecanus erythro-rhynchos Level II M	~Prefers open areas of annual grasses and forbs, shrubs, ~Prefers nonvegetated areas for nesting	~Nests on flat islands without vegetation >3 feet or other tall obstructions	~Breeds on large freshwater lakes ~Requires islands isolated from mammalian predators for nesting ~Prefers gravel or sandy, unconsolidated substrates for nesting	~Adults may travel to lakes, rivers, and marshes >50 miles away from the nest site to feed	~Nests colonially and is highly social ~Very sensitive to human disturbance during nesting ~Nest site tenacity between years is low ~Winters south through lowlands to Nicaragua

Uses a variety of aquatic habitats for foraging and can be found on rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and marshes throughout Wyoming. Nests at only a few specific locations in the state, as breeding habitat is much more restrictive. Nests colonially on large freshwater lakes, and requires islands isolated from mammalian predators. Colonies are usually located on flat, open ground near water. Creates a scrape on bare ground or a mound of soil and debris. Prefers gravel or sandy, unconsolidated substrates for nesting. Eggs (2, 90 mm) are white, often nest-stained. Feeds mostly on nongame fish, such as such as carp and suckers, and salamanders and crayfish; trout and other game fish comprise less than 5% of its diet. Feeds while swimming, dipping its bill into the water to catch fish in its pouch. Often feeds in small groups that may cooperatively herd fish toward shallow water where they are easier to catch. Adults may travel over 50 miles (80 km) from the nest site to feed. Winters south through lowlands to Nicaragua. Is primarily threatened by combinations of changing water levels and human disturbance. Pesticides have caused eggshell thinning in some areas. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the California Gull, Caspian Tern, and Double-crested Cormorant.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate American White Pelicans have been detected on 31 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 15 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain American White Pelicans on the 31 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 23).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

3) Maintain a minimum of two nesting colonies in Wyoming, including one nesting colony outside of Yellowstone National Park.

Figure 23. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which American White Pelicans have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain water levels at lakes where American White Pelicans nest.

2) Maintain substantial populations of fish as a food source for American White Pelicans.

Recommendations

1) Minimize water level fluctuations during the nest-building through fledging stages of American White Pelicans. Rising water levels can flood nests and lake level subsidence may connect islands to the lakeshore, exposing eggs or young to mammalian predators.

2) Protect any colony sites currently in use, regardless of the size of the site or the number of pelicans present.

3) Protect all remaining suitable aquatic habitat in the state. The success of American White Pelicans depends, in part, on their flexibility in choosing nesting areas. This makes protection of all suitable lakes and islands important because pelicans may use a particular site only occasionally, but when they do, it may be their only chance of nesting success.

4) Maintain ample foraging areas within range of colonies. Protect foraging habitat from widespread permanent flooding or drainage.

5) Avoid disturbing nest sites during the breeding season, as colonies are very sensitive to human disturbance. Restrict entry at colonies with excessive human disturbance. In some cases, posting signs to discourage visitors may be effective. However, signs may also draw attention to colony sites and may be ineffective when enforcement is not possible. Efforts to educate the public may be the most reasonable method of reducing disturbance.

6) Maintain a minimum disturbance-free buffer zone of 330 to 590 feet (100 to 180 m) at breeding colonies.

7) Maintain vegetation buffer zones to block siltation, pesticide, and fertilizer runoff into aquatic habitat. This is particularly important where American White Pelican colonies are adjacent to agricultural land, and vulnerable to contamination from agricultural runoff.

8) Consider building and maintaining artificial islands in areas where a lack of suitable nesting habitat is limiting American White Pelican reproduction. Construct islands of soil or dredged materials, at least ¼ acre (0.1 ha) in size. Islands should be flat and situated well offshore for protection from mammalian predators and human disturbance.

Harlequin Duck

Primary Habitat Type: Montane Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Harlequin Duck (HARD) Histrionicus histrionicus Level II M, P		~Dense streamside shrubs ~Overhanging vegetation	~Remote mountain streams ~Good water quality	~Sections of stream with low gradient (<5%), braided channels, sections with swift currents ~Mid and late succession	~Strong fidelity to breeding streams and natal areas ~Very sensitive to human disturbance in breeding territories ~Requires abundant aquatic insects ~Arrives in WY late April; by mid July most males and nonbreeding females depart; females with young depart from mid August to late September ~Winters in coastal North America

Found only in the northwestern corner of Wyoming. Prefers cold, shallow, rapid mountain streams away from concentrated human activities. Nesting habitat includes very low gradient stream sections with dense shrubs lining the banks, braided channels, swift currents, and water rich in aquatic insects. Nests on the ground or in a tree cavity. Nest is a mass of down concealed in a rock crevice or cavity along a stream. Eggs (6 to 8, 58 mm) are pale buff or cream colored. Is a diving duck that eats crustaceans, mollusks, insects, and fish. Winters in marine waters along the Pacific coast. Its presence on a particular stream is an indicator of high water quality. Nesting success is impacted by stream degradation due to sedimentation, channelization, logging, incompatible recreation, and incompatible livestock grazing. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Bald Eagle, Calliope Hummingbird, Willow Flycatcher, American Dipper, Lazuli Bunting, Veery, and Bullock’s Oriole.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Harlequin Duck in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain water quality in high elevation mountain habitats by eliminating or limiting habitat changes that are detrimental to Harlequin Ducks, such as tie hack logging, sediment loading, and development.

Recommendations

1) In areas where Harlequin Ducks nest, ensure that old growth occurs in and around premier streams, and that recreation, grazing, forest management, and logging do not impact preferred nesting habitat.

2) In areas where Harlequin Ducks nest, maintain high water quality and stream stretches with high densities of invertebrates.

3) Avoid clearing debris from high elevation mountain streams to ensure Harlequin Duck nesting and feeding habitat is present.

4) Avoid trail construction and maintenance, other management activities, or intense recreation along known Harlequin Duck breeding streams during the first 7 to 10 days after hatching, as they are especially vulnerable to disturbance during this time. If necessary in areas of intense activity, close stream sections where Harlequin Ducks are known to breed while the chicks are flightless (June to early August).

Merlin

Primary Habitat Type: Low Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Merlin (MERL) Falco columbarius Level II M	~Ponderosa pine ~Douglas-fir ~Open woodlands close to grasslands or shrub-steppe	~Trees spaced well apart whose lower 8 to 10 feet are bare of branches ~Open understory	~Sometimes in cities and towns ~Elevation <8,500 feet	~Conversion of sagebrush/ grassland to cropland greatly lowers quality of foraging habitat ~Home range is 7 to 11 square miles; may be smaller where prey is abundant	~Depends on grassland birds for food ~Still affected by pesticides in many areas of North America, but no longer a major factor controlling populations ~Usually uses abandoned Black-billed Magpie nest ~Fidelity to nest territory is variable ~May desert nest if humans climb nest tree during early incubation ~Can be bred in captivity ~Is a year-round resident in Wyoming

Found scattered throughout Wyoming, in most habitats below 8,500 feet (2,600 m). Found in open woodlands, savannah, grasslands, and shrub-steppe. Has expanded into cities and towns in recent decades. Nests in large trees (usually ponderosa pine, but also other conifers and cottonwood) in open woodlands within a short distance of open sagebrush/grassland for foraging. Tends to select nesting sites that combine the attributes of easy access, a good view of the surrounding area, and maximum concealment of the nest. Nests 8 to 60 feet (2.4 to 18 m) above ground, in trees spaced well apart whose lower 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 m) are bare of branches, and in areas with open understory. Does not build its own nest, but uses an abandoned corvid or hawk nest, particularly domed stick nests. In Wyoming, it almost always uses the abandoned nest of a Black-billed Magpie, to which it makes few, if any, modifications. Eggs (2 to 7, 40 mm) are white, marked with reddish-brown, some nearly unmarked. Some pairs return to the same area each year to nest; others show variable nesting site fidelity. Feeds predominantly on birds, which it catches in fast, low, horizontal flight, rather than by stooping. Hunting flights often originate from perches where large areas can be scanned for prey. Birds make up 80% of the diet, insects (especially dragonflies) 15%, and small mammals 5%. The major prey is the Horned Lark in rural habitats, whereas in urban areas it is the House Sparrow. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Habitat loss is a primary limiting factor; conversion of sagebrush/grassland to cropland greatly lowers the quality of foraging habitat. The decline of an adequate food base is a secondary limiting factor. Populations were affected by organochlorine pesticides in the 1950s and 1960s, though to a lesser extent than Peregrine Falcons. Pesticide contamination continues to be a concern in this region, as some individuals may still be impacted, but at present it does not appear to be a major factor controlling population size. The expansion of populations into urban habitats helps to maintain numbers and is an optimistic reflection of the adaptability of this species. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Red-headed Woodpecker, Lewis’ Woodpecker, Pygmy Nuthatch, and Western Bluebird.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Merlin in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain open stands of mature low elevation conifer and cottonwood in a matrix with open sagebrush/grasslands.

Recommendations

1) Implement woodland management practices that maintain open stands of mature low elevation conifer and cottonwoods. Provide small groves of trees where they have been lost.

2) Minimize loss of sagebrush/grassland habitat by reducing urban and suburban sprawl, habitat fragmentation, and habitat conversion. Merlins require home ranges of 7 to 11 square miles (18 to 28 km²), although they may require less where prey is abundant. Conversion of sagebrush/grassland habitat reduces the quality of foraging for Merlins.

3) Use prescribed fire to maintain open stands of forests and woodlands where Merlins occur.

4) Implement agricultural practices that maintain open stands of trees. Avoid removing hedgerows, clearing odd corners of fields, and planting large monocultures. To enhance foraging habitat for Merlins, avoid removing vegetation around wetlands.

5) Retain historical Merlin nesting sites and potential nest trees. Historic nesting locations which have harbored an occupied nesting territory in one or more years during the past decade should be protected from loss of trees. Because Merlins use alternate nest trees, retain all trees with domed stick nests within the historic stand.

6) Where corvid nests are unavailable and the lack of nesting sites is limiting Merlin reproduction, artificial nests may be beneficial and should be investigated.

7) In areas where Merlins have expanded into cities and towns, plant small groves of large trees to attract and enhance prey populations, and to provide nesting sites for corvids and, eventually, Merlins.

8) Carefully regulate and monitor the capture of Merlins for falconry.

9) Although pesticide contamination is not presently a major factor affecting Merlin populations, it is still a cause for concern, and it can also affect prey populations on which Merlins depend. Pesticides should be used carefully, and only if absolutely necessary, in areas where Merlins occur.

Snowy Plover

Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) would appear here based on priority, but this species is currently documented as a peripheral breeder in Wyoming, and will not be addressed in the Wyoming Bird Conservation Plan at this time. This species will likely be addressed in regional conservation plans.

Black-billed Cuckoo

Primary Habitat Type: Plains/Basin Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Black-billed Cuckoo (BBCU) Coccyzus erythrop- thalmus Level II M	~Cottonwood ~Open woodlands	~High structure ~Dense vegetation		~Mid to late succession ~Urban areas can be important	~Insecticide use greatly reduces caterpillar prey base ~Winters in South America

Found mainly in the north-central part of Wyoming, with a few scattered reports from elsewhere in the state. Prefers upland woodlands that provide a variety of trees, shrubs, and vines; requires low, dense, shrubby vegetation that is commonly associated with riparian habitats in Wyoming. Builds a well-concealed platform nest of twigs lined with grass and plant down, typically 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to 1.8 m) above ground. Eggs (2 to 3, 27 mm) are bluish-green. Feeds primarily on hairy caterpillars gleaned from vegetation, but also eats bird eggs, frogs, lizards, berries, and fruit. Winters in South America. Use of pesticides to control hairy caterpillars, tent caterpillars, and gypsy moths greatly reduces the Black-billed Cuckoo’s prey base, and incompatible livestock grazing eliminates or degrades vertical diversity needed for successful nesting. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Willow Flycatcher, Yellow Warbler, MacGillivray’s Warbler, Song Sparrow, Warbling Vireo, Yellow-breasted Chat, Common Yellowthroat, Lazuli Bunting, and Blue Grosbeak.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Black-billed Cuckoos have been detected on 18 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 7 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Black-billed Cuckoos on the 18 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 24).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 24. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Black-billed Cuckoos have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain dense shrubs and diverse vegetation heights in plains/basin riparian habitat.

Recommendations

1) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in riparian areas to maintain a food source for Black-billed Cuckoos (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Black-billed Cuckoos and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Yellow-billed Cuckoo

Primary Habitat Type: Plains/Basin Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Yellow-billed Cuckoo (YBCU) Coccyzus americanus Level II M	~Cottonwood	~Mid to high canopy closure ~Nests £25 feet above ground in dense deciduous vegetation near water	~Elevation <7,000 feet	~Late succession ~Requires extensive, mature riparian woodlands, especially cottonwood or willow ~Requires ³25 acres (prefers 100 acres or more) of broad-leafed forest at least 330 feet wide and ³2.5 acres of dense nesting habitat per pair ~Marginal habitat is ³10 acres of broad-leafed forest 165 feet wide	~Riparian obligate ~Loss of mature cottonwood stands is detrimental ~Cottonwood stand fragmentation is detrimental ~Insecticide use greatly reduces caterpillar prey base ~Winters in South America

Found mainly along the eastern edge of Wyoming, with a few scattered reports from elsewhere in the state. Is a riparian obligate species that prefers extensive areas of dense thickets and mature deciduous forests near water, and requires low, dense, shrubby vegetation for nest sites. Builds a flimsy platform nest of twigs lined with leaves, grass, moss, and rootlets on the horizontal limb of a tree or shrub 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) above ground. Eggs (4, 31 mm) are light blue to light greenish-yellow. Feeds primarily on hairy caterpillars gleaned from vegetation, but also takes other insects, spiders, and some fruits, frogs, and lizards. Winters in South America. Is extremely sensitive to habitat fragmentation. Population declines in parts of its range are due to deterioration and fragmentation of riparian woodland habitat and to prey scarcity caused by pesticides. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Yellow Warbler and Bullock’s Oriole.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Yellow-billed Cuckoo in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain riparian cottonwood forests of at least 25 acres (10 ha) in size and at least 330 feet (100 m) wide.

2) Maintain at least 2.5 acres (1 ha) of dense shrubs and diverse vegetation heights per breeding pair.

Recommendations

1) Implement riparian Best Management Practices that maintain mature riparian cottonwood stands.

2) Eliminate fragmentation of riparian cottonwood stands in areas where Yellow-billed Cuckoos occur.

3) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in riparian areas to maintain a food source for Yellow-billed Cuckoos (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Yellow-billed Cuckoos and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Western Screech-Owl

Primary Habitat Type: Plains/Basin Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Western Screech-Owl (WESO) Otus kennicottii Level II M	~Cottonwood ~Aspen ~Conifers associated with riparian habitat	~Mid to old growth ~Requires snags and large trees	~Elevation <7,000 feet		~Winters in North America

Potential distribution is statewide, but typically occurs west of the Continental Divide. Favors riparian woodlands with widely spaced trees interspersed with grassy open areas for hunting. Requires cavities for nesting and roosting in trees with a minimum dbh of 12 inches (30 cm). Nests in a natural cavity or old woodpecker cavity, especially those made by Northern Flickers. Eggs (2 to 5, 36 mm) are white. Swoops down on its prey from a perch and eats primarily rodents, but will also take insects, spiders, centipedes, scorpions, crayfish, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and small birds. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Low elevation deciduous forests and riparian areas are rapidly disappearing in some areas due to agricultural demands and urban development. Increased tree cutting could lead to a loss of essential habitat and nest cavities. Appears to be particularly susceptible to adverse weather conditions; severe winters cause a certain number of mortalities every year. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Flicker and Pileated Woodpecker.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Western Screech-Owl in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Manage cottonwoods for a mid to old growth canopy cover interspersed with grassy open areas for hunting in plains/basin riparian habitat where Western Screech-Owls occur.

2) Manage for snags of at least 12 inches (30 cm) dbh for nesting in plains/basin riparian habitat.

Recommendations

1) Implement riparian Best Management Practices that emphasize maintaining snags suitable for Western Screech-Owls in plains/basin riparian habitat.

Eastern Screech-Owl

Primary Habitat Type: Plains/Basin Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Eastern Screech-Owl (EASO) Otus asio Level II M	~Needs cavities in trees	~Prefers open subcanopy and sparse shrub cover ~Requires snags and large trees	~Elevation <8,000 feet	~May be restricted to eastern WY	~Susceptible to disturbance at nest site ~Nest cavity competition with other species may occur ~Will nest in artificial nest boxes ~Winters in North America

Potential distribution is statewide, but typically occurs east of the Continental Divide. Favors riparian woodlands with widely spaced trees interspersed with grassy open areas for hunting. For nesting and roosting, requires cavities in trees with a minimum dbh of 12 inches (30 cm). Nests in a natural cavity or old woodpecker cavity, especially those made by Northern Flickers. Eggs (4 to 5, 34 mm) are white. Swoops down on its prey from a perch and eats primarily rodents, but will also take insects, spiders, centipedes, scorpions, crayfish, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and small birds. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Loss of woodland and riparian habitats due to agricultural and urban development is a concern. Nest cavity competition with other species may occur. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Flicker.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Eastern Screech-Owl in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain an open subcanopy and sparse shrub cover interspersed with grassy open areas for hunting in plains/basin riparian habitat where Eastern Screech-Owls occur.

2) Manage for snags of at least 12 inches (30 cm) dbh for nesting in plains/basin riparian habitat.

Recommendations

1) Erect artificial nest boxes to enhance population distribution and nesting success where competition with other species occurs.

2) Implement riparian Best Management Practices that emphasize maintaining snags suitable for Eastern Screech-Owls in plains/basin riparian habitat.

Great Gray Owl

Primary Habitat Types: Mid Elevation Conifer and High Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Great Gray Owl (GGOW) Strix nebulosa Level II M	~Montane conifer forests ~Tall aspens ~Often nests in Douglas-fir forests, with nests most commonly in Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine	~Mid to late successional stages of Douglas-fir on flat land with herbaceous understory and 50 to 60% closure of canopy cover	~1 square mile home range in WY	~Hunts meadows within forests	~Nests in old goshawk and raven nests, depression in top of broken topped snag, and dwarf mistletoe platforms ~Nest site and mate fidelity ~Year-round resident in Wyoming; may move to lower elevation in winter

Found mainly in the mountainous areas in the western 1/3 of Wyoming. Inhabits lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, Englemann spruce-subalpine fir, mixed coniferous forests, and stands of tall aspens. Uses an abandoned hawk or eagle stick platform nest built in a dense conifer or on a broken-topped snag. Eggs (2 to 4, 54 mm) are white. Typically keeps the same mate and nests in the same vicinity each year. Feeds mostly on voles, but may take other small mammals and small birds. Hovers and pounces on its prey. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming; may move to lower elevations in the winter to avoid deep snow, which can reduce the availability of prey. Populations are restricted by lack of available habitat and habitat loss due to logging. Intensive timber harvest may be detrimental if nest sites or roost trees needed by fledged young are eliminated. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Goshawk, Black-backed Woodpecker, Three-toed Woodpecker, Hammond’s Flycatcher, and Townsend’s Warbler.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Great Gray Owl in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Develop a cooperative, statewide, interagency/non-governmental organization database on Great Gray Owl nest sites, with data sensitivity built in.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain mid to late successional stages of mixed conifer and aspen stands with an herbaceous understory.

Recommendations

1) Use forest management practices that do not result in large-scale removal of montane coniferous forests.

2) Avoid removing and fragmenting montane coniferous forests through human developments.

3) Avoid removing suitable nest trees during timber or firewood harvest, including trees with mistletoe and broken-topped dead trees.

4) Inventory appropriate habitat to determine population and nesting status and specific habitat requirements of Great Gray Owls in Wyoming.

5) Conduct thorough surveys for Great Gray Owls prior to any timber harvesting.

Boreal Owl

Primary Habitat Type: High Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Boreal Owl (BOOW) Aegolius funereus Level II M	~High elevation conifer forests, particularly old growth spruce-fir ~High elevation patches of mature aspen, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, and Douglas-fir are important when available, as they provide more nest cavities than spruce-fir	~High density of large snags for nesting (average 25 inches dbh in Idaho) ~Interspersion of forests that includes mature and old growth spruce-fir ~High canopy closure ~Sparse understory vegetation ~Multiple canopy layers ~Low perches for hunting ~Large downed logs for prey habitat	~High elevation	~Home ranges are usually >2,500 acres but often overlap ~Defends territory within 350 feet of the nest ~Is absent from clearcuts but unaffected by small patch cuts or selection cuts ~May be limited in Wyoming by the lack of Pileated Woodpecker nest cavities	~Distribution and abundance are largely associated with nest cavity availability and prey populations ~Requires existing cavities for nesting ~Requires abundant small mammals, especially red-backed voles ~Readily uses nest boxes ~Strictly nocturnal ~Year-round resident in Wyoming, generally within a stable home range but disperses during poor prey conditions

Found primarily in western Wyoming and in the Sierra Madre range of south-central Wyoming. Inhabits mature, high elevation forests of Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and/or mature lodgepole pine; interspersed mature aspen stands are also important as they usually provide more nesting cavities than spruce-fir. Breeds at elevations of 6,560 to 10,630 feet (2,000 to 3,240 m). Requires large areas of interspersed forests that include mature and old growth spruce-fir, as home ranges are usually greater than 2,500 acres (1,000 ha). Prefers a structure that is typical of mature and old growth forests (i.e. large downed logs, a high overstory canopy, and large snags). Prefers areas with many openings or an open stand structure for foraging, and trees with large cavities. Nests in an existing cavity 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 m) above ground. Uses an abandoned woodpecker cavity, natural cavity, or nest box with a well-matted bed of decayed wood chips and feathers; no lining materials are added. Eggs (3 to 10, 32 mm) are white. Primarily eats small mammals, especially red-backed voles, but will also eat birds, insects, and frogs. Snatches up prey from the ground after a gliding descent from a perch. Caches food in crevices or tree forks; assumes an incubating posture to thaw frozen prey. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Does not migrate, but is nomadic in response to cyclic prey populations. Distribution and abundance are largely associated with nest cavity availability and prey populations. Forest fragmentation and removal of mature forest habitats on a regional scale may harm populations. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Great Gray Owl, Hammond’s Flycatcher, Brown Creeper, Golden-crowned Kinglet, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, and Townsend’s Warbler.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Boreal Owl in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain large stands of high elevation mature and old growth forests in areas where Boreal Owls occur. At the landscape scale, maintain a portion of each watershed in mature or older forest, and over half of each watershed in stands older than saplings. The area necessary to support a population likely exceeds 385 square miles (1,000 km²), so quality habitat should be well distributed throughout the species’ range.

2) Manage for abundant small mammal populations and large woodpecker populations in high elevation forests. These will provide a food source and cavity nest sites.

3) Maintain mature aspen stands dispersed across the landscape, in a mosaic with other age classes.

Recommendations

1) Retain large-diameter snags and all trees with nest cavities. Retain mature and decadent trees for future snag production, particularly where existing snags are few. In conifer forests, potential nest snags should be greater than 15 inches (38 cm) dbh and part of a forest stand. Leave clumps of trees around large snags. Because Boreal Owls do not defend large nesting territories, potential nest stands may be close together.

2) Implement forest management practices that retain and encourage regeneration of mature aspen stands across the landscape. Even aspen stands that cover small areas are important because of the high use of aspen by primary cavity-nesters. Some aspen trees should exceed 13 inches (33 cm) dbh to support cavities large enough for Boreal Owls.

3) Avoid removing and fragmenting mature and old growth conifer forests through logging and human developments. Avoid clearcutting, except as needed to regenerate aspen. Clearcutting reduces primary prey populations, removes forest structure necessary for foraging, and eliminates nest cavities. Because forest succession is slow in spruce-fir forests, clearcut sites will remain unsuitable for roosting or foraging for up to a century and new nest trees will not develop for nearly two centuries.

4) Use uneven-aged management (such as selective tree harvest) and small patch cuts [2.5 to 7.5 acres (1 to 3 ha)] with long rotations (at least 150 years) to allow tree removal while maintaining suitable habitat. All tree sizes, including some very large trees, should be represented in the post-harvest stand to assure production of large snags for nesting, large woody debris for small mammals, and clumps with high canopy cover for roosting. Concentrate patch cuts in a portion of each watershed rather than dispersing them throughout entire watersheds. Retain mature forest in the matrix between cuts. Create complex-shaped cutting units, with stringers of forest extending into them, rather than large rectangular or circular cuts. Make sloppy cuts (with residual standing dead and live trees, especially aspen and patchy slash), and cuts that retain standing and downed wood on the site. Thinning stands from below (which removes individuals smaller than the dominant size class) and single-tree selection that reduces competition among dominant trees and increases tree growth could accelerate the process of developing suitable nest structures.

5) Avoid dense thicket-like timber that inhibits owl mobility.

6) Retain large woody debris as habitat for small mammals.

7) A well-maintained nest box program may be beneficial where snags are unavailable and the lack of nest sites is limiting Boreal Owl reproduction. Because nest box programs ignore requirements of species other than the target species, nest boxes should not be considered a desirable mitigation tool for future timber-harvest operations, but may be useful in mitigating past mistakes. Inside dimensions of nest boxes should be: bottom 8 x 8 inches (20 x 20 cm), front height 18 inches (46 cm), back height 20 inches (51 cm), and entrance hole 3.5 inches (9 cm). Place about 2 inches (5 cm) of wood chips and sawdust in the bottom of nest boxes. Hang nest boxes 15 to 30 feet (4.5 to 9.5 m) high after trimming all branches below box height. Face the nest box toward a small [at least 10 x 10 feet (3 x 3 m)] forest opening to provide a clear flight path to the box. Clean out nest boxes after each nesting season; nest boxes may be occupied in successive years, but only by new individuals and after box is cleaned.

White-throated Swift

Primary Habitat Type: Specialized (cliffs and canyons)

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
White-throated Swift (WTSW) Aeronautes saxatalis Level II M, K			~Nests in crevices in cliffs and canyon walls	~ Elevation <9,000 feet	~Nests in small colonies of up to a dozen pairs ~Nest site fidelity ~Will nest in buildings such as bell towers or grain elevators ~Winters south through Mexico to Honduras

Scattered throughout much of Wyoming in a variety of habitats with cliffs and canyons below 9,000 feet (2,750 m). Ranges over adjacent valleys and habitats within a few miles of the nest while foraging. Nests in deep cracks and crevices in steep, rocky, often inaccessible cliff faces or canyon walls, from 10 to 200 feet (3 to 60 m) above the base. Sometimes nests in cracks in high walls of buildings such as bell towers or grain elevators. Builds a nest of feathers and grasses glued together with saliva and attached to the sides of rock walls. Eggs (3 to 6, 21 mm) are white or creamy-white and unmarked. Feeds in flight, exclusively on flying insects. Generally forages high in the air over canyons or cliffs but will fly low over rivers and streams in pursuit of emerging aquatic insects. Winters south through Mexico to Honduras. Declines may be due to disturbance at nest sites, degradation of winter habitat, or pesticide exposure. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Turkey Vulture, Golden Eagle, Peregrine Falcon, Common Raven, and Canyon Wren.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate White-throated Swifts have been detected on 23 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 6 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain White-throated Swifts on the 23 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 25).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 25. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which White-throated Swifts have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain cliffs and canyons for White-throated Swifts to use for nesting.

Recommendations

1) Avoid converting cliffs and canyons to other landforms.

2) Protect areas traditionally used by White-throated Swifts, as they will return to nesting sites in subsequent years.

3) Restrict human activities, such as intensive rock climbing, near White-throated Swift nests during the breeding season.

4) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in canyon habitats to maintain a food source for White-throated Swifts (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until White-throated Swifts and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Black-chinned Hummingbird

Black-chinned Hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) would appear here based on priority, but this species is currently documented as a peripheral breeder in Wyoming, and will not be addressed in the Wyoming Bird Conservation Plan at this time. This species will likely be addressed in regional conservation plans.

Calliope Hummingbird

Primary Habitat Types: Mid Elevation Conifer and Montane Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Calliope Humming-bird (CAHU) Stellula calliope Level II M, R	~Meadows, parks, and thickets within conifers and alders ~Riparian corridors are important during migration	~May be most common in second growth after fire or logging (promotes flowers for feeding) ~Uses understory and midstory levels in the canopy	~Elevation 4,500 to 8,500 feet (data from Big Horn Mountains)	~Dead twigs for perching ~Edge effect important ~Early, mid, and late succession ~Patchy habitat	~Breeding restricted to Big Horn Mountains and NW Wyoming ~Usually responds negatively to grazing ~May feed at sapsucker wells ~Often reuses old nest ~Winters in Mexico

Found in all mountainous areas of Wyoming, although most sightings are from the western portion of the state. Frequents meadows and canyons, riparian aspen stands and willow thickets, and other shrubby areas within coniferous forests in the mountains. Prefers timbered stands near water with a low to intermediate canopy cover. Builds a small lichen and moss cup nest covered with spider’s silk, from 2 to 70 feet (0.6 to 21 m) above ground on a branch with small knots of dead mistletoe or pine cones, which resemble the nest, frequently within riparian areas. May reuse old nest. Eggs (2, 12 mm) are white. Feeds mainly on nectar, preferably from red flowers, but also eats small insects and spiders. Winters in Mexico. Populations respond negatively to incompatible livestock grazing that eliminates or degrades vertical diversity needed for nesting and foraging. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Harlequin Duck, Northern Goshawk, Williamson’s Sapsucker, Black-backed Woodpecker, Rufous Hummingbird, Three-toed Woodpecker, Cordilleran Flycatcher, Western Tanager, and Cassin’s Finch.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Calliope Hummingbird in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Manage stands for an open to intermediate canopy cover to ensure growth of flowering plants as a food source for Calliope Hummingbirds.

2) Reduce impacts to flowering plants from recreation, grazing, and wildlife foraging.

3) Maintain conifer stands near water with low to intermediate canopy cover for Calliope Hummingbird nesting sites.

Recommendations

1) Implement forest management practices that encourage a variety of seral stages, including those that perpetuate some early successional plant communities.

2) Monitor impacts to flowering plants from recreation, grazing, and wildlife foraging and modify management, if necessary, to ensure flowering plants are available as a food source to Calliope Hummingbirds.

Broad-tailed Hummingbird

Primary Habitat Types: Montane Riparian, Plains/Basin Riparian, and Mid Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Broad-tailed Humming-bird (BTLH) Selasphorus platycercus Level II M	~Willow ~Cottonwood ~Aspen ~Ponderosa pine ~Engelmann spruce ~Subalpine fir ~Douglas-fir	~Overhanging branches ~Edge habitat associated with open meadows containing flowering plants	~Nests to treeline	~Nests near or over a stream	~Females show nest site fidelity ~Brightly colored electric fence insulators may be a problem ~Winters in Mexico and Central America

Found in most of the mountainous areas of Wyoming, although the state is on the northern limit of its breeding range. Inhabits meadows and patches of flowers within riparian shrub habitat, mixed conifer forests, and aspen stands, from 4,000 to 11,000 feet (1,200 to 3,400 m) in elevation. Sometimes ranges eastward onto the plains. A woven cup nest of downy materials, such as willow or cottonwood seeds, covered with bits of bark, fine rootlets, and lichen and held together with spider’s silk is saddled on a large horizontal limb or small twig in a shrub near or over water in cottonwood, willow, aspen, Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, subalpine fir, or other mixed-conifer forests. Nest is usually 4 to 15 feet (1.2 to 4.4 m) above ground. Eggs (2, 13 mm) are white. Feeds on nectar from a variety of flowers, but also eats small insects and spiders. Winters in Mexico. Loss of flowering plants due to incompatible livestock grazing is a concern. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Rufous Hummingbird, Calliope Hummingbird, Willow Flycatcher, and Lincoln’s Sparrow.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Broad-tailed Hummingbirds have been detected on 24 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 14 routes on which they were detected for a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Broad-tailed Hummingbirds on the 24 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 26).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 26. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Broad-tailed Hummingbirds have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Provide preferred Broad-tailed Hummingbird nesting habitat near or over streams.

2) Provide edge habitat associated with open meadows containing flowering plants.

3) Reduce impacts to flowering plants from recreation, grazing, and wildlife foraging.

Recommendations

1) Implement riparian Best Management Practices that emphasize patches of flowering plants within plains/basin riparian habitat.

2) Eliminate incompatible livestock grazing and recreation in riparian habitat that adversely impacts the flowering plant component.

3) Monitor the impacts of wildlife foraging on flowering plants in riparian areas.

Rufous Hummingbird

Primary Habitat Type: Mid Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Rufous Humming-bird (RUHU) Selasphorus rufus Level II M	~Mixed conifers (spruce-fir- lodgepole pine; spruce-fir; lodgepole pine-fir), conifer/aspen (lodgepole pine -aspen), and willow/aspen ~Meadows, forest edges, and riparian thickets of coniferous woodlands	~Early successional, open shrub, and forested habitats			~Winters south to south-central Mexico

Found across Wyoming during migration, but nests only in the northwestern corner of the state because Wyoming is on the eastern limit of its breeding range. Nests in mixed forests of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, blue spruce, and aspen, and in riparian thickets within the forest. Builds a lichen-covered cup nest of plant down and spider’s silk attached to a horizontal branch or drooping limb, from 1 to 15 feet (0.3 to 4.5 m) above ground. Nests are built in coniferous or deciduous trees, vines, or shrubs, and are often reused year after year. May nest in a loose colony of up to 10 nests. Eggs (2, 13 mm) are white. Feeds on nectar, insects, spiders, and tree sap. Winters south to south-central Mexico. Habitat alteration and simplification due to incompatible livestock grazing and recreation is a concern. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Goshawk, Cordilleran Flycatcher, Calliope Hummingbird, Cassin’s Finch, and Western Tanager.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Rufous Hummingbird in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain a mosaic of mixed coniferous forests, meadows, and riparian shrub habitat in areas where Rufous Hummingbirds occur.

Recommendations

1) Inventory appropriate habitat to determine population and nesting status and specific habitat requirements of Rufous Hummingbirds in Wyoming.

Lewis’ Woodpecker

Primary Habitat Types: Low Elevation Conifer and Plains/Basin Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Lewis’ Wood-pecker (LEWO) Melanerpes lewis Level II M	~Cottonwood ~Ponderosa pine	~Snags of 15” dbh or greater ~Snag density ³1 per 10 acres in either cottonwood or pine ~Dense understory – 30 to 50% in mid to upper-mid seral conditions ~High structure	~Elevation <8,500 feet	~Open stands of trees with snags ~Fire can be beneficial ~Both early and late succession ~Usually places nest on north to east facing slope	~Requires cavities for nesting ~Nests occur in clumps ~Responds negatively to incompatible livestock grazing ~ European Starlings and American Kestrels may compete for nest cavities ~Winters south to Mexico

Scattered throughout Wyoming; is very localized in suitable habitat. Inhabits open country with scattered trees; open or park-like ponderosa pine forests are probably the major breeding habitat. Attracted to burned out stands of Douglas-fir, mixed conifer, juniper, and riparian and oak woodlands, but is also found in deciduous forests, especially riparian cottonwoods. Prefers areas with a good understory of grasses and shrubs to support insect prey populations. Excavates a cavity nest from 20 to 25 feet (6 to 7.6 m) above ground in a live or dead tree or tall stump with an average dbh of 15 inches (38 cm). Favors ponderosa pine and cottonwood trees for nesting; requires a snag density of at least 1 per 10 acres (4 ha). Eggs (6 to 7, 26 mm) are white. Feeds on insects, nuts, conifer seeds, and berries either caught in the air or gleaned from the ground or tree bark. Winters from central Colorado south to northern and western Mexico. Populations using riparian woodlands in arid and semiarid areas have greatly declined due to loss and degradation of these habitats by incompatible livestock grazing. Competition with European Starlings and American Kestrels for nest cavities may be another factor in population declines. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Swainson’s Hawk, Bald Eagle, American Kestrel, Hairy Woodpecker, Willow Flycatcher, Hammond’s Flycatcher, Warbling Vireo, Northern Rough-winged Swallow, Red-breasted Nuthatch, Pygmy Nuthatch, Hermit Thrush, Western Tanager, and Lazuli Bunting.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Lewis’ Woodpecker in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain snags of at least 15 inches (38 cm) dbh at a density of at least 1 snag per 10 acres (4 ha) in plains/basin cottonwood and low elevation forests statewide.

2) Maintain a dense understory, with 30 to 50% in mid to upper-mid seral conditions.

Recommendations

1) Implement riparian and forest Best Management Practices that emphasize maintaining snags in plains/basin riparian and low elevation conifer forest habitat.

2) Implement riparian and forest Best Management Practices that emphasize maintaining a grass/forb/shrub understory so insect prey is available.

3) Avoid timber harvesting and salvage logging in mature ponderosa pine forest and burned conifer forests where Lewis’ Woodpeckers occur.

4) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in woodland habitats to maintain a food source for Lewis’ Woodpeckers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Lewis’ Woodpeckers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

5) Do not encourage European Starlings to nest, and control, reduce, or remove European Starling populations where nesting cavity competition is a concern.

Williamson’s Sapsucker

Primary Habitat Type: Mid Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Williamson’s Sapsucker (WISA) Sphyrapicus thyroideus Level II M	~Mixed conifers (lodgepole pine; Douglas fir-spruce; lodgepole pine-spruce-fir; spruce) and tall aspens	~High structural layers ~Late succession		~Territory size of 10 acres per pair ~Trees with ³10 inches dbh ~Oregon recommends 150 snags per 100 acres for maximum population	~Snags or live trees infected with heart rot fungi for cavity nest sites ~Winters south to north-central Mexico

Found in the mountainous areas of Wyoming where coniferous forests and stands of aspen dominate. Inhabits mixed conifer forests of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, and blue spruce, especially those that have burned, and stands of tall aspen trees. Excavates a cavity nest in conifer or aspen from 5 to 60 feet (1.5 to 18 m) above ground. May reuse a nesting tree, but chisels a new hole each time. Eggs (5 to 6, 24 mm) are white. Gleans insects, especially ants, and tree sap from tree trunks and branches. Winters south to north-central Mexico. May be declining due to loss of snags and live trees with dead heartwood for nesting habitat. Is threatened by harvesting of mature conifer stands and incompatible logging practices. Clearcuts remove habitat; however, selective logging may be compatible, depending on the area and methods used. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Great Gray Owl, Hammond’s Flycatcher, Hairy Woodpecker, Black-backed Woodpecker, and Three-toed Woodpecker.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Williamson’s Sapsucker in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain mature stands of mixed conifer and aspen forests in areas where Williamson’s Sapsuckers occur.

2) Maintain forest stands of trees with a minimum dbh of 10 inches (25 cm) in areas where Williamson’s Sapsuckers occur.

3) Maintain an average to maximum snag density of 0.05 to 1.5 snags per acre (0.1 to 4 per ha) in areas where Williamson’s Sapsuckers occur.

Recommendations

1) Due to a lack of information on this species, determine additional habitat requirements through inventory, monitoring, and research.

2) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in grassland habitats to maintain a food source for Williamson’s Sapsuckers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Williamson’s Sapsuckers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Red-naped Sapsucker

Primary Habitat Type: Aspen

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Red-naped Sapsucker (RNSA) Sphyrapicus nuchalis Level II M	~Occurs primarily in aspen forests or in coniferous forests where aspen is present ~Prefers aspen for nesting	~Mid to late seral stage ~Strongly associated with mature aspen ~Nest tree dbh ³9 inches ~Nests 3 to 35 feet above ground	~Elevation 5,000 to 9,000 feet	~Territory size 5 to 12 acres ~Fire can be beneficial ~Late succession	~Excavates cavities for nesting in dead or live trees with heartrot ~Nest tree fidelity; excavates new nest each year, but often in same tree for several years ~Keystone species: creates nest cavities and sap wells that are used by other birds, mammals, and insects ~Winters south to Central America

Found in the mountainous areas of Wyoming where coniferous forests and stands of aspen dominate. Inhabits mixed conifer forests with aspen and montane riparian woodland, but is most strongly associated with mature aspen (especially riparian) woodland. Excavates a cavity nest in a snag or a living tree with a dead or rotten interior; shows a strong preference for aspen. Nests 3 to 35 feet (0.9 to 10.6 m) above ground in a tree of at least 9 inches (23 cm) dbh. Shows strong fidelity to nest tree, but chisels a new hole each year. Eggs (4 to 5, 24 mm) are white. Feeds primarily on insects (particularly ants), captured by bark-gleaning and by drilling into trees; also consumes sap and pitch, occasionally fruit, acorns, and berries. Relies heavily on sap from conifers as a food source upon arrival in spring; uses sap of aspen and birch only after buds open on the trees. Also sallies from perch to hawk insects in a flycatcher-like fashion. Winters south to Central America. May be declining due to loss of snags and live aspen with dead heartwood for nesting habitat. Sustaining populations requires maintaining, enhancing, and restoring snags, riparian woodlands, and stands of aspen adjacent to coniferous forest. Although decadent aspen may be beneficial in the short term, lack of regeneration will adversely affect the species in the long term. Will use forest edges and logged forests but extensive clearcuts or the removal of snags and preferred tree species would be detrimental. Also will use burns, partially-cut forest and small clearcuts where snags and live hardwood trees remain and adjacent forest is available for foraging. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Downy Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Williamson’s Sapsucker, Tree Swallow, Mountain Bluebird, Black-capped Chickadee, Mountain Chickadee, Western Wood-Pewee, Warbling Vireo, House Wren, and American Kestrel.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Red-naped Sapsuckers have been detected on 36 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 22 on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Red-naped Sapsuckers on the 36 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 27).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 27. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Red-naped Sapsuckers have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain an average snag density of 150 snags greater than 10 inches (25 cm) dbh per 100 acres (40 ha) in areas where Red-naped Sapsuckers occur.

Recommendations

1) Survey for nesting trees before habitat manipulation. Identify and maintain existing nest stands.

2) In areas where Red-naped Sapsuckers occur, implement aspen management practices that enhance diverse age classes at the landscape scale, with adequate representation of mature stands and old growth.

3) Maintain disturbance regimes, natural and mechanical, and the dynamic nature of aspen communities on a landscape scale. Where natural disturbance mechanisms cannot be reintroduced, mechanical disturbance events should mimic, as closely as possible, the disturbance history of the local area and surrounding habitats.

4) Implement aspen management practices that emphasize maintaining snags suitable for Red-naped Sapsuckers in aspen habitat.

5) Manage all understory and adjacent communities, especially riparian, to maintain diversity and variety.

6) Implement woodland practices that encourage oak survival where it occurs to enhance feeding and nesting for Red-naped Sapsuckers.

7) Retain downed logs and woody debris as sources of insect food for Red-naped Sapsuckers.

8) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in grassland habitats to maintain a food source for Red-naped Sapsuckers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Red-naped Sapsuckers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Three-toed Woodpecker

Primary Habitat Types: Mid Elevation Conifer and High Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Three-toed Wood-pecker (TTWO) Picoides tridactylus Level II M	~Mixed conifers (lodgepole pine-spruce; lodgepole pine-spruce-fir; spruce-fir) ~Burned conifer forests	~Post-fire with large stands of dead trees	~Use of burned areas declines 3 to 5 years post-burn	~Optimal habitat includes areas with 42 to 52 snags per 100 acres, occurring in clumps, with 12 to 16 inches dbh, 20 to 40 feet tall, and mostly with bark still present	~Fire dependent ~ Snags, partially dead trees, or live trees infected with heart rot fungi for cavity nest sites ~Feeds primarily (75%) on wood-boring insects found on dying or recently dead lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce ~Abundance of prey may cause population irruption ~Is a year-round resident in Wyoming

Scattered across Wyoming in coniferous forests (except in the eastern 1/3 of the state). Inhabits mixed conifer forests of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, blue spruce, and Englemann spruce-subalpine fir, especially those forests that have burned. Excavates a cavity nest in a conifer from 5 to 50 feet (1.5 to 15 m) above ground. Prefers snags at least 12 inches (30 cm) dbh and at least 15 feet (4.5 m) in height. Requires snag densities at 1 per 5 to 7 acres (2 to 3 ha). Clumping of snags may be beneficial. Eggs (4, 23 mm) are white. Feeds on insects, especially the larvae of wood-boring insects, and tree sap gleaned from tree trunks and branches. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Habitat loss due to logging of mature/old growth forests, salvage logging of post-fire stands, and urbanization is a concern. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Williamson’s Sapsucker, Black-backed Woodpecker, Clark’s Nutcracker, Western Tanager, Northern Goshawk, Great Gray Owl, and Mountain Chickadee.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Three-toed Woodpecker in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain dense forests of mature/old growth mixed conifers with an element of disturbance (e.g. burned, beetle-killed, or cutover) that leaves numerous decadent trees, snags, and fallen logs.

2) Retain larger diameter trees [at least 12 inches (30 cm) dbh] for cavity nest sites and retain all trees with existing nest cavities.

3) Prevent Three-toed Woodpecker habitat loss due to fire suppression, loss of mature and old growth forests, and removal of snags and insect-infested trees.

4) On a landscape scale, provide a continual supply (1 to 2% of the landscape) of recent stand replacement fires greater than 100 acres (40 ha) in size, with at least 50% of that total unsalvaged after burning.

Recommendations

1) On a 3- to 5-year rotational basis, provide for the type of disturbances (e.g. fire or pathogenic producing) that provides a source of food and nest sites in mature and old growth mixed conifer forests in areas where Three-toed Woodpeckers occur.

2) In recently burned coniferous forests, refrain from salvage logging for up to six years post-burn or until wood-boring insects decline.

3) To provide optimal habitat for Three-toed Woodpeckers, provide areas in mature/old growth mixed conifer forests that include clumps of 42 to 52 snags per 100 acres (40 ha) that are 12 to 16 inches (30 to 41 cm) dbh and 20 to 40 feet (6 to 12 m) tall, with most of the bark still present.

4) Implement forest management practices in areas where Three-toed Woodpeckers occur that retain all trees with nest cavities; retain snags in harvested areas; retain mature trees and a mix of healthy and diseased trees for nest sites; retain some tall, hard, dead trees for drumming sites; and retain patches of trees in a variety of decay stages for foraging, especially insect host trees and those susceptible to future insect occupancy.

5) Where salvage logging of burns is inevitable, remove trees from one area of the burn only, leaving another representative area intact that retains the full complement of snag dimensions for Three-toed Woodpeckers and other post-fire dependent species.

6) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in forest habitats to maintain a food source for Three-toed Woodpeckers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Three-toed Woodpeckers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

7) Due to incomplete information on this species, determine additional habitat requirements through inventory, monitoring, and research. In particular, more detailed information is needed on habitat use, diet, required snag density, and response to land management activities, especially forest harvest patterns and changes in fire regimes.

Black-backed Woodpecker

Primary Habitat Types: Mid Elevation Conifer and High Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Black-backed Wood-pecker (BBWO) Picoides arcticus Level II M	~Mixed conifers (spruce, fir, Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine)	~Burned forests and dense forests of mature/old growth ~Burned, swampy, cut-over, or beetle-killed where dead trees are numerous	~Highly responsive to processes (e.g. fire, spruce budworm outbreaks) that result in high concentrations of wood-boring insects invading dead trees ~Use of burned areas declines 3 to 5 years post-burn	~May require a dynamic mosaic of recent burns across a landscape to sustain populations ~Trees with ³8 inches dbh	~Fire dependent ~Snags, partially dead trees, or live trees infected with heart rot fungi for cavity nest sites ~Abundance of prey may cause population irruption ~Is a year-round resident in Wyoming

Currently nests only in the northwest and northeast corners of Wyoming. Is a fire dependent species that prefers mixed conifer forests of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, blue spruce, and Englemann spruce-subalpine fir, especially forests that have recently burned. Excavates a cavity nest in a conifer snag, partially dead conifer, or live conifer with dead heartwood, usually 2 to 15 feet (0.6 to 4.5 m) above ground. Eggs (4, 22 mm) are white. Feeds mostly on ants and the larvae of wood-boring insects gleaned from tree trunks and branches. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Habitat loss due to logging of mature/old growth forests, salvage logging of post-fire stands, and urbanization is a concern. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Three-toed Woodpecker, Great Gray Owl, Northern Goshawk, Hammond’s Flycatcher, Williamson’s Sapsucker, Clark’s Nutcracker, Mountain Chickadee, Western Tanager, and Cassin’s Finch.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Black-backed Woodpecker in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain dense forests of mature/old growth mixed conifers with an element of disturbance (e.g. burned, beetle-killed, or cutover) that leaves numerous decadent trees, snags, and fallen logs.

2) Retain larger diameter trees [at least 8 inches (20 cm) dbh] for cavity nest sites and retain all trees with existing nest cavities.

3) Prevent Black-backed Woodpecker habitat loss due to fire suppression, loss of mature and old growth forests, and removal of snags and insect-infested trees.

4) On a landscape scale, provide a continual supply (1 to 2% of the landscape) of recent stand replacement fires greater than 100 acres (40 ha) in size, with at least 50% of that total unsalvaged after burning.

Recommendations

1) On a 3- to 5-year rotational basis, provide for the type of disturbances (e.g. fire or pathogenic producing) that provides a source of food and nest sites in mature and old growth mixed conifer forests in areas where Black-backed Woodpeckers occur.

2) In recently burned conifer forests, refrain from salvage logging for up to six years post-burn or until wood-boring insects decline.

3) To sustain Black-backed Woodpecker populations, establish management areas of 1,000 acres (405 ha) in preferred habitat, with no salvage sales allowed.

4) Implement forest management practices in areas where Black-backed Woodpeckers occur that retain all trees with nest cavities; retain snags in harvested areas; retain mature trees and a mix of healthy and diseased trees for nest sites; retain some tall, hard, dead trees for drumming sites; and retain patches of trees in a variety of decay stages for foraging, especially insect host trees and those susceptible to future insect occupancy.

5) Where salvage logging of burns is inevitable, remove trees from one area of the burn only, leaving another representative area intact that retains the full complement of snag dimensions for Black-backed Woodpeckers and other post-fire dependent species.

6) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in forest habitats to maintain a food source for Black-backed Woodpeckers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Black-backed Woodpeckers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

7) Due to incomplete information on this species, determine additional habitat requirements through inventory, monitoring, and research. In particular, more detailed information is needed on habitat use, diet, required snag density, and response to land management activities, especially forest harvest patterns and changes in fire regimes.

Olive-sided Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Types: High Elevation Conifer and Mid Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Olive-sided Flycatcher (OSFL) Contopus cooperi Level II M, K	~Coniferous, riparian, and aspen forests	~Tall conifers ~Post-fire forests with tall snags ~Open forest structure with low percentage of canopy cover ~Forest openings and edges near meadows, wetlands, canyons, and rivers		~Elevation 8,000 feet to timberline	~Feeds exclusively on insects that can be caught in the air ~Rare cowbird host ~Winters in Central and South America

Scattered throughout central and western Wyoming in mature coniferous, riparian, and aspen forests from 8,000 feet (2,500 m) to timberline. Is dependent on burned areas, as it requires tall snags or high, conspicuous dead branches for foraging and singing perches and prefers open stands with a low percentage of canopy cover. Is often associated with forest openings and edges near meadows, wetlands, canyons, and rivers. Builds a well-concealed cup nest of twigs and rootlets, lined with pine needles, moss, and lichen. Hides nest in a cluster of needles and twigs on a horizontal branch of a conifer, well away from the trunk, usually 15 to 50 feet (5 to 15 m) above ground. Eggs (3 to 4, 22 mm) are white, buff, or pale salmon, lightly but clearly marked (often wreathed) with brown or olive. Is a rare cowbird host. Feeds exclusively on insects that can be caught in the air; flies out from exposed perches high in the tops of conifers. Winters in montane South and Central America. Loss of winter habitat may be an important contributor to its decline. Fire suppression throughout the breeding range limits the acreage of suitable habitat. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Black-backed Woodpecker, Three-toed Woodpecker, Townsend’s Solitaire, and Mountain Bluebird.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Olive-sided Flycatchers have been detected on 23 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 12 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Olive-sided Flycatchers on the 23 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 28).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 28. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Olive-sided Flycatchers have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain an open forest structure with tall snags in areas where Olive-Sided Flycatchers occur.

Recommendations

1) Implement forest management practices in areas where Olive-sided Flycatchers occur that retain snags and large trees to provide important foraging and singing perches. Leave the tallest trees and snags when implementing salvage cuts after fires, insect outbreaks, or blowdowns; exclude some affected areas entirely from salvage cutting.

2) Allow wildfires to burn and use prescribed fire to create an open stand structure and tall snags in areas where Olive-sided Flycatchers occur.

3) Use timber harvest methods and treatments that create forest openings with tall trees and snags around the margins, create a relatively open canopy closure, create forested edge habitat around riparian and wetland features, retain trees of varying heights to provide nesting sites, and retain trees near or above the surrounding canopy to provide perches for foraging.

4) Encourage the recovery of beaver populations to provide forest openings and pond shore habitat with tall snags.

5) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in forest habitats to maintain a food source for Olive-sided Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Olive-sided Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Willow Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Types: Montane Riparian and Plains/Basin Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Willow Flycatcher (WIFL) Empidonax traillii Level II M	~Willow ~Alder ~Cottonwood ~Hawthorn ~Water birch	~Low structure	~Elevation <10,000 feet	~Thickets associated with open stands ~Early to mid succession ~Vegetation must be near water ~About 5 acres needed per breeding pair	~Riparian obligate ~Common cowbird host ~Populations increase with decreased livestock grazing and no poisoning or removal of willows ~Winters in Mexico and Central America

Scattered throughout the mountains of Wyoming where it is closely tied to river bottoms. Is a riparian obligate that uses willow or alder thickets along streams, especially where streams are bordered by open stands of cottonwoods. Also found in brushy fields, and along edges of bogs, thickets, or groves of small trees in grasslands. Builds a loosely woven cup nest of plant down and fibers in a horizontal fork or upright crotch on the outside edge of a low shrub or tree, 1 to 5 feet (0.3 to 1.5 m) above the ground. Eggs (3 to 4, 18 mm) are buff with brown spots near the large end. Is a common cowbird host; occasionally responds by burying the cowbird egg in the bottom of the nest. Feeds on flying insects caught in the air. Winters in Mexico and Central America. Population declines in the West are due to a combination of riparian habitat degradation by incompatible livestock grazing and heavy nest parasitism by cowbirds. Deforestation on the wintering grounds may also threaten population stability. Populations increase in response to a reduction in cattle grazing and cessation of willow control in riparian habitats. Recreational activities in riparian areas can reduce habitat quality. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Harlequin Duck, MacGillivray’s Warbler, Wilson’s Warbler, Song Sparrow, Lincoln’s Sparrow, Warbling Vireo, Dark-eyed Junco, Yellow-breasted Chat, Common Yellowthroat, Lazuli Bunting, and Blue Grosbeak.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Willow Flycatchers have been detected on 43 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 20 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Willow Flycatchers on the 43 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 29).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 29. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Willow Flycatchers have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain habitat patches greater than 5 acres (2 ha) in size to facilitate Willow Flycatcher nesting success.

2) Provide 50 to 75% shrub cover in areas where Willow Flycatchers occur.

Recommendations

1) Manage for a diversity of woody vegetation near water and open stands of cottonwoods.

2) Minimize recreational activities in riparian habitat where Willow Flycatchers breed.

3) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in riparian habitats to maintain a food source for Willow Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Willow Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

4) Rotate livestock use during the songbird breeding season in order to rest units from cowbird concentration in alternate years and to give local songbird populations [within a radius of 4 miles (6.5 km)] the opportunity to nest without high parasitism pressure.

Hammond’s Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Types: High Elevation Conifer, Aspen, and Montane Riparian

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Hammond’s Flycatcher (HAFL) Empidonax hammondii Level II M	~Conifers ~Aspen ~Willow riparian	~High structure ~Well-developed ground cover	~Elevation >6,500 feet	~Late succession ~Old stands (80 to 90 years) of >25 acres	~May be adversely affected by logging ~Nests high in canopy ~Winters in Mexico and Central America

Found in the western and south-central mountains of Wyoming. Inhabits tall, moist, closed-canopy montane conifer forests, sometimes with deciduous understory, such as aspen. Nest site is cool and well shaded. Builds a cup nest of bark strips, grasses, and plant down lined with hair, moss, and feathers in the fork of a small tree or on a horizontal branch of a large conifer or deciduous tree, usually 25 to 40 feet (7.6 to 12 m) above ground. Eggs (3 to 4, 18 mm) are creamy white. Feeds exclusively on insects, usually flying insects caught in the air, in the middle portions of tall conifers and aspens. Winters in southern Arizona, Mexico, and Central America. Logging may adversely affect this species by removing nesting habitat and altering microsite climate. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Goshawk, Black-backed Woodpecker, Blue Grouse, Clark’s Nutcracker, Mountain Chickadee, Western Tanager, and Cassin’s Finch.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Hammond’s Flycatcher in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain dense coniferous forests that are well shaded with a deciduous/aspen component in higher elevations where Hammond’s Flycatchers occur.

Recommendations

1) Leave stands of mature and climax conifers adjacent to aspen groves in higher elevations where Hammond’s Flycatchers occur.

2) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in riparian areas to maintain a food source for Hammond’s Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Hammond’s Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Gray Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Types: Juniper Woodland and Mountain-foothills Shrub

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Gray Flycatcher (GRFL) Empidonax wrightii Level II M	~Juniper woodlands; tall sagebrush; and arid, very open pine woods	~Mature woodlands with intermediate grass cover and tree height, and moderate amounts of juniper regeneration ~High canopy cover ~High density of senescent trees ~Dead limbs for sallying perches and song posts	~Low elevation ~Semi-arid	~Occurs in stands of less than 2.5 acres, but not in such stands isolated from larger stands by 0.6 mile or more	~Feeds exclusively on insects ~May be limited by the presence of pinyon pine in Wyoming ~Frequent cowbird host ~Winters south to central Mexico

Scattered across central and southwestern Wyoming in juniper woodlands and adjacent sagebrush. Inhabits semi-arid woodlands and brushy areas. Occupies a wide range of conditions within mature juniper woodlands in areas where the canopy cover is high; is more abundant in low elevation than in high elevation woodlands. Prefers stands with large, decadent or dead trees, which it uses for sallying perches and song posts. Builds a cup nest of bark, plant down, weed stems, and grass, lined with feathers and hair, in a crotch of juniper or sagebrush, or near the base of a thornbush, from 2 to 9 feet (0.6 to 2.7 m) above ground. Sometimes nests in loose colonies. Eggs (3 to 4, 18 mm) are creamy-white and unmarked. Is a frequent cowbird host. Feeds exclusively on insects. Forages in the spaces between shrubs. Flycatches close to the ground, sallying out from the tops of shrubs and trees. Also catches and gleans insects from the ground and low plants. Winters south to central Mexico. Has a relatively high tolerance for habitat disturbance, but is vulnerable to clearing and fragmentation of juniper woodlands. Occurs in stands of less than 2.5 acres (1 ha), but not in such stands isolated from larger stands by 0.6 mile (1 km) or more. Reproduction may be confined to the juniper vegetation type in Wyoming, and possibly limited by the presence of pinyon pine. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Ash-throated Flycatcher, Western Scrub-Jay, Pinyon Jay, Juniper Titmouse, and Bewick’s Wren.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Gray Flycatcher in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain large, non-fragmented stands of mature juniper woodlands.

2) Maintain large-statured sagebrush adjacent to juniper woodlands.

3) Maintain pinyon pine stands wherever they occur in southern Wyoming.

Recommendations

1) Implement woodland management practices that provide continuous, non-fragmented stands of juniper woodlands where Gray Flycatchers occur.

2) Implement woodland management practices that leave large, decadent, or dead trees intact for sallying perches and song posts in areas where Gray Flycatchers occur.

3) In areas where chaining for forage improvement occurs, limit clearing widths to 650 feet (200 m), use light chain or cable, and cease chaining during winter.

4) Implement woodland management practices that encourage pinyon pine survival wherever it occurs.

5) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in woodland habitats to maintain a food source for Gray Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Gray Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

6) Rotate livestock use during the songbird breeding season in order to rest units from cowbird concentration in alternate years and to give local songbird populations [within a radius of 4 miles (6.5 km)] the opportunity to nest without high parasitism pressure.

Dusky Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Types: Low Elevation Conifer, Aspen, and Mountain-foothills Shrub

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Dusky Flycatcher (DUFL) Empidonax oberholseri Level II M	~Ponderosa pine-savannah, aspen, mountain-foothills shrub, riparian shrub	~Open canopy ~Nests 2 to 15 feet above ground in low trees or shrubs ~High percentage cover of ground vegetation		~Presence of water not a nest site requirement ~Early succession ~Favors brushy, cutover slopes	~Feeds exclusively on insects ~Rare cowbird host ~Winters south to southern Mexico

Scattered across most of Wyoming in a wide range of open woodland and shrub habitats, including ponderosa pine savannah, pine-juniper, aspen, cottonwood-riparian, woodland chaparral, and riparian shrub. Found in early successional forests that have a well-developed shrub layer and sunlight penetration; generally avoids forests with a high percentage of canopy cover. Prefers thinned coniferous forests and brushy, cutover slopes. Builds a cup nest of weed stems, grass, feathers, and hair in a crotch of juniper or sagebrush, or near the base of a thorny shrub, usually 3 to 7 feet (1 to 2 m) above ground. Eggs (3 to 4, 18 mm) are white and unmarked. Is a rare cowbird host. Feeds exclusively on insects. Forages low over shrubby vegetation for flying insects. Winters south to southern Mexico. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Lincoln’s Sparrow, MacGillivray’s Warbler, Wilson’s Warbler, Lazuli Bunting, Orange-crowned Warbler, Mountain Bluebird, Tree Swallow, Western Wood-Pewee, and American Kestrel.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Dusky Flycatchers have been detected on 30 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 19 on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Dusky Flycatchers on the 30 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 30).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 30. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Dusky Flycatchers have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain open canopies in areas where Dusky Flycatchers nest.

2) Maintain plant species diversity in areas where Dusky Flycatchers nest.

Recommendations

1) Manage for diverse shrub understories in open forest stands.

2) Implement aspen management practices that provide diverse age classes and species in aspen stands.

3) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in aspen and shrubland habitats to maintain a food source for Dusky Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Dusky Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Cordilleran Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Types: Montane Riparian and Mid Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Cordilleran Flycatcher (COFL) Empidonax occidentalis Level II M	~Conifers ~Aspen ~Especially near water	~Both low and high structure ~Dense canopy closure and shady conditions ~Forages beneath tree crowns ~>2 snags per acre	~Drainages important to create cool microclimate	~Trees of mid to late succession	~Winters in Mexico and Central America

Found throughout most of the mid elevation mountains of Wyoming in a variety of wooded habitats, but prefers moist, shaded forests. Also inhabits canyon bottoms and riparian woodlands. Requires a sheltered nest site near water. Builds a moss-lined cup nest of small twigs and rootlets in a variety of sites including a cavity in a small tree, streambank, roots of an upturned tree, cliff ledge, and building eaves. Nests from ground level up to 30 feet (9 m) above ground. Eggs (3 to 4, 17 mm) are white to creamy and spotted with brown. Is a rare cowbird host. Feeds mainly on insects and spiders caught in the air or gleaned while hovering, but also eats a few seeds. Winters in Mexico. Is negatively affected by loss of mid to late successional tree stands due to logging, fire, and development. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Northern Goshawk, Calliope Hummingbird, Williamson’s Sapsucker, Black-backed Woodpecker, Three-toed Woodpecker, Warbling Vireo, and Cassin’s Finch.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Cordilleran Flycatchers have been detected on 31 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 14 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Cordilleran Flycatchers on the 31 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 31).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 31. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Cordilleran Flycatchers have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Where Cordilleran Flycatchers occur, manage coniferous forests to include trees of mid to late succession; greater than 2 snags per acre (5 per ha); diverse plant structure; and moist, shaded microsites, including sheltered sites near water for nesting.

Recommendations

1) Implement forest management practices that provide moist, shaded microsites and a variety of seral stages, especially moderately old and older trees with dense canopy closure, for Cordilleran Flycatcher foraging and nesting sites.

2) Where cowbird nest parasitism occurs, rotate livestock use during the songbird breeding season in order to rest units from cowbird concentration in alternate years and to give local songbird populations [within a radius of 4 miles (6.5 km)] the opportunity to nest without high parasitism pressure.

3) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in riparian areas to maintain a food source for Cordilleran Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Cordilleran Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Ash-throated Flycatcher

Primary Habitat Type: Juniper Woodland

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Ash-throated Flycatcher (ATFL) Myiarchus cinerascens Level II M	~Pine-juniper and juniper	~Open canopy of old growth juniper ~Sparse understory ~High density of snags ~Trees <16 feet in height	~Rock outcrops	~Steep topography such as rocky mesas and canyon lands ~Benefits by habitat interspersion ~Lower elevation juniper woodlands	~Requires cavities for nesting ~Will use nest boxes ~In Wyoming, is dependent on the southwestern juniper community ~Winters south to northeast Costa Rica

Currently nests only in the juniper woodlands of southwestern Wyoming. Individuals found in Wyoming outside of the southwest corner are usually migrating. Typically found on steep, rocky slopes sparsely covered by old growth juniper, a sparse understory, and an abundance of snags. More abundant in lower elevation juniper woodlands. Nests in a natural cavity, old woodpecker cavity, or hole in a fence post, 3 to 20 feet (1 to 6 m) above ground. Will use nest boxes. Builds a soft nest of hair, fur, feathers, grass, and occasionally snakeskin. Eggs (4 to 5, 22 mm) are creamy, marked with brown, purple, or olive. Takes a wide variety of insects by hover-gleaning, hawking, and ground-gleaning. Usually flies out from a perch to capture an insect, then lands on a different perch. Also eats small fruits and seeds. Winters south to northeast Costa Rica. Is vulnerable to extirpation in Wyoming because its required habitat is restricted in the state. Could be threatened by extensive tree removal, soil erosion, isolation from other populations in neighboring states, or by cessation of natural juniper stand rejuvenation, primarily through fire suppression. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Gray Flycatcher, Western Scrub-Jay, Juniper Titmouse, Bewick’s Wren, and Black-throated Gray Warbler.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Ash-throated Flycatcher in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain mature juniper woodlands with an open canopy and well interspersed with sagebrush and other shrubs.

2) Maintain a mosaic of large trees and snags in areas where Ash-throated Flycatchers occur.

Recommendations

1) Implement woodland management practices that leave large, decadent, or dead trees intact for nesting, sallying perches, and song posts in areas where Ash-throated Flycatchers occur.

2) Retain snags and all trees with nest cavities. Retain mature and decadent trees for future snag production, particularly where existing snags are few.

3) Use prescribed fire to maintain open stands of juniper woodland where Ash-throated Flycatchers occur. Habitat alterations should be designed to promote habitat interspersion but not to the detriment of old growth stands.

4) Natural fires less than 1,200 acres (500 ha) should not be suppressed except when significant stands are threatened or when fragmentation of old growth stands will become too severe.

5) Increase the quantity and quality of shrub cover near to or interspersed among mature juniper stands to enhance foraging.

6) Where snags are unavailable and the lack of nest sites is limiting Ash-throated Flycatcher reproduction, a well-maintained nest box program may be beneficial. Because trees may take over 150 years to develop cavities, erecting nest boxes may mitigate snag loss. Nest boxes should have a 1.75-inch entrance hole, and should be placed 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) above the ground in mature juniper woodland. Monitor nest boxes regularly throughout the nesting season to evict House Sparrows, rodents, and insects, and to clean out “dummy” nests built by wrens.

7) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in woodland habitats to maintain a food source for Ash-throated Flycatchers (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Ash-throated Flycatchers and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

8) Do not encourage European Starlings to nest, and control, reduce, or remove European Starling populations where nesting cavity competition is a concern.

Cassin’s Kingbird

Cassin’s Kingbird (Tyrannus vociferans) would appear here based on priority, but this species is currently documented as a peripheral breeder in Wyoming, and will not be addressed in the Wyoming Bird Conservation Plan at this time. This species will likely be addressed in regional conservation plans.

Loggerhead Shrike

Primary Habitat Type: Shrub-steppe

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Loggerhead Shrike (LOSH) Lanius ludovicianus Level II M	~Shrub-steppe ~Pinyon-juniper ~Greasewood ~Shadscale saltbush ~Shelterbelts	~Stable branches and dense cover needed for nest sites ~Nests usually 1 to 5 feet above ground, regardless of shrub height		~Relatively open habitat with scattered trees and shrubs for nesting and perch sites and low vegetation and bare ground for foraging	~Requires lookout perches ~Maintain prey base by conservative burning and limited pesticide use ~Uses barbed wire fences for perching and prey impalement ~Urbanization, strip mining, hedgerow destruction, and agricultural conversions are habitat concerns ~Winters in Mexico

Found across Wyoming in shrub-steppe, shrubland, and woodland habitats. Breeds in basin-prairie shrublands, sagebrush grasslands, mountain-foothills shrublands, pine-juniper woodlands, and woodland-chaparral. Builds a bulky cup nest of twigs, forbs, and woven bark strips, lined with fine materials in a tree or shrub, usually hidden below the crown in a crotch or on a large branch, from 1 to 5 feet (0.3 to 1.5 m) above ground. Eggs (5 to 6, 24 mm) are grayish-buff and marked with gray, brown, and black. Swoops down on grasshoppers and other large insects from a lookout perch; also takes some small mammals and birds. Winters south to central Mexico. Population declines are due to habitat loss and conversion to cultivation and urbanization, loss of insect prey due to pesticide use, and pesticide contamination (especially on wintering grounds). Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the American Kestrel, Greater Sage-Grouse, Northern Mockingbird, Sage Thrasher, Sage Sparrow, Brewer’s Sparrow, Vesper Sparrow, and Lark Sparrow.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Loggerhead Shrikes have been detected on 80 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 60 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Loggerhead Shrikes on the 80 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 32).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 32. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Loggerhead Shrikes have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Within the shrub-steppe landscape, provide areas of short vegetation [4 inches (10 cm) or less] surrounded by sagebrush, greasewood, and/or saltbush and areas of taller vegetation [higher than 8 inches (20 cm)] as important ground foraging and nesting areas for Loggerhead Shrikes.

2) Protect known Loggerhead Shrike nest trees from damage, such as browsing or rubbing by livestock and loss due to prescribed burning, when using grazing or fire as land management tools.

Recommendations

1) Prevent large-scale fires that will eradicate large, continuous areas of sagebrush or other shrublands and woodlands, or result in cheatgrass invasion. Limit prescribed burns to small-scale fires during the non-breeding season.

2) Minimize conversion of sagebrush and other shrublands and woodlands to nonnative grasslands or croplands.

3) Maintain sagebrush in large, continuous stands composed of a mosaic of open (5%) to moderate (25%) shrub cover and a variety of ages and heights.

4) Limit the number of roads in sagebrush habitat and consider rehabilitating old roads. In addition to habitat loss through additional road construction, traffic volume (e.g. dust and noise), and displacement by other species more adapted to roads and edge (e.g. Horned Larks) also have effects. Even roads and other developments with low traffic densities affect sagebrush obligate passerines.

5) Maintain herbaceous cover for nest concealment by protecting the current season’s growth through the nesting season and by managing for at least 50% of annual vegetative growth to remain through the following nesting season.

6) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in shrubland habitats to maintain a food source for Loggerhead Shrikes (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Loggerhead Shrikes and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle.

Plumbeous Vireo

Primary Habitat Types: Mid Elevation Conifer and Low Elevation Conifer

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Plumbeous Vireo (PLVI) Vireo plumbeus Level II M	~Conifer or coniferous/ deciduous forests ~Fairly dry or warm	~Low to medium canopy cover ~Dense mid-story and understory	~Forest stands with many small (0.4 acre) openings	~Uneven age structure	~Sensitive to forest fragmentation ~Common cowbird host ~Winters in South America

Scattered throughout the mountain foothills of Wyoming. Inhabits coniferous and mixed coniferous/deciduous forests, especially open forests with low to medium canopy cover and a dense shrub understory. Has a wide habitat tolerance, and uses openings caused by logging and fire. Favors rotation-age rather than old growth forests, but is apparently sensitive to forest fragmentation. Builds a deep cup nest suspended by the upper rim from a forked twig of a horizontal conifer or deciduous tree branch, 4 to 30 feet (1.2 to 9 m) above ground. Is a common cowbird host; if a cowbird egg is laid first, it often builds a second floor of the nest to cover it. Feeds on insects gleaned from twigs and foliage, or catches flying insects, and occasionally eats small fruits. Winters in South America. Increased opportunities for nest parasitism due to incompatible livestock grazing is a concern. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Lewis’ Woodpecker, Dusky Flycatcher, Townsend’s Solitaire, Swainson’s Thrush, and Western Tanager.

Population Objectives

1) Determine statewide population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

2) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 indicate Plumbeous Vireos have been detected on 24 BBS routes in Wyoming, including 7 routes on which they were observed a minimum of 3 years.

a) Maintain Plumbeous Vireos on the 24 BBS routes on which they were observed (Figure 33).

b) Maintain the average number of individuals observed per route over the past 5 years at a level equal to or above the average number of individuals observed during all years the route was run.

Figure 33. Bold lines indicate Breeding Bird Survey routes on which Plumbeous Vireos have been observed from 1968 through 2002.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain undergrowth in coniferous and mixed coniferous/deciduous forests.

2) Maintain small openings [about 0.3 acre (0.1 ha)] in coniferous and mixed coniferous/deciduous forests without fragmenting forests and removing undergrowth.

Recommendations

1) Manage for coniferous and coniferous/deciduous forest stands with many small openings [about 0.3 acre (0.1 ha)] and considerable undergrowth in areas where Plumbeous Vireos occur.

2) Where cowbird nest parasitism occurs, rotate livestock use during the songbird breeding season in order to rest units from cowbird concentration in alternate years and to give local songbird populations [within a radius of 4 miles (6.5 km)] the opportunity to nest without high parasitism pressure.

3) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in forest habitats to maintain a food source for Plumbeous Vireos (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Plumbeous Vireos and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Western Scrub-Jay

Primary Habitat Type: Juniper Woodland

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Western Scrub-Jay (WESJ) Aphelocoma californica Level II M	~Pine-juniper and juniper-sagebrush	~Large juniper trees for nesting and sentinel posts ~Sparse to medium juniper cover ~Open juniper-sagebrush savannah	~Moderate amount of exposed rock around the nest	~Rocky ridges and ravines	~Sensitive to human activity around the nest ~Long-term pair bond; pair or family group remain year-round on permanent territory ~In Wyoming, is dependent on the southwestern juniper community ~Is a year-round resident in Wyoming

Currently nests only in the juniper woodlands of southwestern Wyoming. Individuals found in Wyoming outside of the southwest corner are probably dispersing juveniles. Is associated with mature juniper woodlands but seems to avoid dense stands. Mature trees and high canopy cover are important to nesting and large trees also function as sentinel posts. Forages in open sagebrush-grassland as well as the juniper woodlands in which it nests. Area around the nest usually has relatively sparse canopy cover and moderate amounts of exposed rock. Builds a cup nest 3 to 20 feet (1 to 6 m) above ground toward the tip of a juniper branch. Nest is composed of small juniper and sagebrush twigs outwardly and lined with fine grass and occasionally animal hair. Eggs (2 to 7, 28 mm) are pale green, marked with reddish-brown or green. Is an omnivorous and opportunistic forager. Gleans a variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs, nuts, seeds, and fruit from the ground, small shrubs, and lower branches of junipers. Will come to bird feeders. Requires a reliable food source, such as juniper berries, in winter. Is a year-round resident in Wyoming. Is inclined to form pair bonds; pair or family group remains year-round on a permanent territory. Is sensitive to human activities around the nest and has been known to abandon nests rather quickly. Its required habitat is restricted in Wyoming, making it vulnerable to extirpation. Could be threatened by extensive tree removal, soil erosion, isolation from other populations in neighboring states, or by cessation of natural juniper stand rejuvenation, primarily through fire suppression. Other species that may benefit from habitat management for this species include the Gray Flycatcher, Ash-throated Flycatcher, Bewick’s Wren, and Scott’s Oriole.

Population Objectives

1) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from 1968 through 2002 are inadequate to determine population trends for the Western Scrub-Jay in Wyoming. Determine population trend data by implementing “Monitoring Wyoming’s Birds: The Plan for Count-based Monitoring”.

Habitat Objectives

1) Maintain mature juniper woodlands with an open canopy and well interspersed with sagebrush and other shrubs.

Recommendations

1) Implement woodland management practices that leave large, mature trees intact for nesting and sentinel posts in areas where Western Scrub-Jays occur.

2) Increase the quantity and quality of shrub cover near to or interspersed among mature juniper stands to enhance foraging.

3) Avoid approaching nests or disturbing nesting activities, as Western Scrub-Jays have been known to abandon nests easily.

4) Use prescribed fire to maintain open stands of juniper woodland where Western Scrub-Jays occur. Habitat alterations should be designed to promote habitat interspersion but not to the detriment of old growth stands.

5) Natural fires less than 1,200 acres (500 ha) should not be suppressed except when significant stands are threatened or when fragmentation of old growth stands will become too severe.

6) Avoid or minimize insecticide use in woodland habitats to maintain a food source for Western Scrub-Jays (and other insectivores). Postpone all insecticide use until Western Scrub-Jays and other insectivores have completed their breeding cycle. Where possible, allow insect outbreaks to proceed naturally.

Juniper Titmouse

Primary Habitat Type: Juniper Woodland

SPECIES & STATUS	VEGETATION COMPOSITION	VEGETATION STRUCTURE	ABIOTIC FACTORS	LANDSCAPE FACTORS	SPECIAL FACTORS
Juniper Titmouse (JUTI) Baeolophus ridgwayi Level II M	~Pine-juniper woodland, juniper-sagebrush	~Late-successional juniper woodlands with high canopy cover ~High density of large, dead limbs and decadent trees ~Productive understory and high herbaceous ground cover		~Prefers south and west aspects of slopes ~Breeding territories 2 to 12 acres; minimum viable population size is 20 individuals, requiring 125 acres	~Requires cavities for nesting ~Nest site fidelity ~May form permanent pair bonds