I. INTRODUCTION

A. Introduction to the Issues.

The Northwest Forest Plan represents an unprecedented approach to federal land management, where common objectives and methods are being administered by diverse federal agencies for an extensive ecological region. This Plan is a comprehensive ecosystem management strategy consisting of extensive standards and guidelines, which are scientifically-based and attempt to address current and future environmental problems (USDA and USDI 1994 [Record of Decision, ROD]).

Protection of old-growth forest related species was a governing principle in the development of the Northwest Forest Plan. Species protection measures are addressed by numerous standards and guidelines applying to all land allocations designated by the plan (USDA and USDI 1994 [Standards and Guidelines], Species Analysis Team 1994 [Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (Final SEIS), Appendix J2]). The "survey and manage" standard and guideline provides benefits to numerous taxa, and includes management of known species sites (Component/Strategy 1) and requires surveys prior to ground-disturbing activities at potential species sites (Component/Strategy 2; USDA and USDI 1994 [Standards and Guidelines, Table C-3, pages C-4 to C-6]). The goal of surveys in proposed project areas is to identify new known sites for these protected species. Subsequently, these sites are to be managed according to the specific management guidelines developed for that organism. This document provides the survey protocols developed for Component/Strategy 2 amphibian species; those for which surveys are required prior to ground disturbing activities. A separate document addresses the management requirements and recommendations for these species and provides a thorough review of the known elements of the species' biology relevant for effective management.

B. Survey and Manage Amphibians.

Five salamander species are designated as Survey and Manage Components/ Strategies 1 and 2 (revised Table C-3, Standards and Guidelines, USDA and USDI 1994): the Siskiyou Mountains salamander (Plethodon stormi, PLST), Del Norte salamander (P. elongatus, PLEL), Shasta salamander (Hydromantes shastae, HYSH), Larch Mountain salamander (P. larselli, PLLA) and Cascade Range populations of the Van Dyke's salamander (P. vandykei, PLVA). The Standards and Guidelines (USDA and USDI 1994) state that "Within the known or suspected ranges and within the habitat types or vegetation communities associated with the species, surveys for Del Norte, Larch Mountain, Shasta, Siskiyou Mountains, and Van Dyke's salamanders <and red tree voles and lynx> must precede the design of all ground-disturbing activities that will be implemented in 1997 or later."

These salamanders share many ecological characteristics. They are relatively rare, endemic species. Each has a restricted geographic distribution, falling entirely within a very small portion of the range of the Northwest Forest Plan. These species are considered strongly associated with old-growth forest conditions (Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team [FEMAT] 1993; Blaustein et al. 1995; Olson et al. 1996, in prep.), and some have tight associations with specific habitat conditions. They are generally terrestrial species, occurring in forest uplands, with the exception that Van Dyke's salamander is also found in association with small streams and seeps, and some lake shores (C. Crisafulli, pers. obs.). These are ground-dwelling species, thought to be associated with interior forest microhabitat and microclimate conditions. They occur in the surface and sub-surface layers of substrate, litter, and debris. Four of the salamander species are found in association with rocky substrates: Del Norte, Siskiyou Mountains and Larch Mountain salamanders occur in talus, while the Shasta salamander is generally found in limestone outcrops (FEMAT 1993; Standards and Guidelines, USDA and USDI 1994; Species Analysis Team 1994, Final SEIS). However, Larch Mountain salamanders are not restricted to talus, and has been found in upland old-growth forest (C. Crisafulli, pers. obs.).

Ground-disturbing activities could severely compromise these animals. Occurring in the surface layer of forests in upland habitats, and relying on old-growth forest conditions, they may be particularly vulnerable to common forest management practices. Loss of surface microhabitats and degradation of surface microclimate conditions are two general threats to these amphibians that may occur in several federal land allocations. In lands designated for timber harvest, either regeneration harvest (e.g., Matrix) or density management to promote old-growth forest conditions (e.g., Late-Successional Reserves, Riparian Reserves, Adaptive Management Areas), ground-disturbing harvest practices could severely impact these salamanders.

In addition to the federal designation of these salamanders as Component/Strategy 1 and 2 species under the Survey and Manage provision, all five of these amphibian species are categorized as Protected species in the States of the Pacific Northwest. The States of California, Oregon, and Washington have developed additional regulations for the capture, handling, and collection of these animals. These regulations vary from acquiring a State permit for handling and collecting, to the development of a Memorandum of Understanding with the State. The State laws reflect the status of these rare salamanders, and these regulations need to be addressed if federal surveys are planned.

C. Protocol Objectives

Survey protocols for Component/Strategy 2 amphibian species are designed to determine the presence/absence of these animals at a potential site. The inventory methods developed are extensive, such that they allow full coverage of a proposed project area, yet allow for intensive searches in discrete areas of particularly suitable habitat. Conservative methods were developed, with relatively increased search effort in comparison to surveys conducted for more common terrestrial amphibians, because these rare species may require a greater effort to detect, they are considered species at risk of extinction, and are species for which federal mitigation may "turn the tide". These protocols may not be optimum for other species or appropriate for alternative objectives.

Although these animals are primarily upland species (except some populations of Van Dyke's salamanders), they may occur in the Riparian Reserve land allocation. Riparian Reserve corridors may provide two ecological functions for these animals: populations may occur there, and these species may rely on these areas to maintain connectivity among populations. When habitats for Survey and Manage amphibian species occur in Riparian Reserve areas with proposed ground disturbing activities, surveys are necessary, as they would be in any land allocation. However, it will be helpful to document other amphibian species found during surveys in Riparian Reserves. In these areas, management may impact both Survey and Manage amphibian species and aquatic/riparian dependent amphibian species encompassed within Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives (see Riparian Reserve Delineation Module [in prep.], supplement to "Ecosystem Analysis at the Watershed Scale: The Federal Guide for Watershed Analysis (version 2.2)"). Surveys conducted in Riparian Reserves for Survey and Manage species will provide essential information on a larger assemblage of rare endemic amphibians that are thought to be highly sensitive to the impacts of ground-disturbing activities.

D. Trigger for Protocol

Survey for a Component/Strategy 2 amphibian species is triggered when its habitat is found within a proposed project area, or within 180 m of its perimeter (see below), and the area is within the potential species range.

Details of the species ranges are provided in the Methodology section. In general, the geographic ranges of two of these species, the southern Plethodon species (PLST and PLEL), are better known, and hence surveys are required in a more restricted area. For these, if habitat occurs in a project area that is within 25 miles of a known site, or appears to be within the suspected range (Olson et al. 1996, in prep., Blaustein et al. 1995, Leonard et al. 1993), then the protocol is triggered. In contrast, more general range guidelines exist for the northern two species of Plethodon (PLLA and PLVA) and the Shasta salamander. The geographic ranges of these animals are not well-known due to lack of general surveys, and populations of these three species are known from isolated sites. For the Shasta salamander, surveys should be conducted if suitable habitat is found in a project area in the Lake Shasta region, and surveys are strongly recommended if habitat is found in areas north to the Oregon border (within the range of the Northwest Forest Plan). For Van Dyke's salamanders, surveys are triggered when habitat occurs in a proposed project area in the state of Washington, from the Columbia River to the north end of King County, from the Cascade Range crest to the lowland physiographic province of the Puget Trough (e.g., Nussbaum et al. 1983, p. 26-28), below timberline. Surveys are recommended to the north and east of this area. For Larch Mountain salamanders, the survey area generally is defined by Mt. Hood and Mt. Rainier, the foothills of the west slope of the Cascade Range and the Cascade Range crest, below timberline. Additional areas include the Columbia River Gorge from Bingen, Washington, and Hood River, Oregon, to the east where the Columbia River bisects the foothills of the Cascade Range (Olson et al. 1996, in prep.).

Surveys are triggered only in areas containing suitable habitat. Again, there is a south/north difference in recognized habitat requirements for these species. The southern three species (PLEL, PLST, and HYSH) are habitat-specialists, associated with rocky substrates (see species protocols in Methodology section; also Olson et al. 1996 in prep., Blaustein et al. 1995, FEMAT 1993, Species Analysis Team 1994 [Final SEIS]). The northern two species occur in a variety of habitats. Larch Mountain salamanders may occur in forested and non-forested talus in the Columbia River Gorge, while in the Cascade Range of Washington it may occur in old-growth forests, forested boulder fields, and basalt tubes (caves). Although it is considered a terrestrial species, it can be found close to streams. Van Dyke's salamanders occur in stream, seep, and upland forest habitats, and has been found at cave entrances and montane lakes.

Surveys also are triggered if the habitat of a species falls within approximately 180 m of the project area (Figure 1). It is necessary to survey habitats if they fall in this perimeter area because ground disturbing activities within the project area may impact populations immediately abutting the project area boundary.

The Standards and Guidelines (USDA and USDI 1994) recommend that likely species locations, based on habitat, are identified at the watershed analysis level, and then thoroughly searched prior to implementation of activities. This approach has merit. A watershed level screen of habitats can facilitate the prioritization of areas for active management. However, it is not a sufficient habitat screen for Survey and Manage salamanders. Once project areas are identified, a finer scale, on-site screen is needed to verify the presence/absence of potential habitat for these species. Such an on-site screen also would help to delineate gradients in habitat conditions that may be related to salamander distributions. These conditions can then be used to further prioritize site-level projects and to plan for Component/Strategy 2 species surveys.

E. Survey Methods.

Surveys for terrestrial salamanders in the Pacific Northwest have been conducted by searching through surface debris, including litter, substrate, and woody material, or by the installation of pit-fall traps and cover boards (e.g., papers in Ruggiero et al. 1991, papers in Szaro et al. 1988, Corn and Bury 1990). For extensively-conducted inventories of rare terrestrial salamanders, two standardized types of "visual encounter surveys" (Heyer et al. 1994) that account for sampling effort are commonly used: a time-constrained search, and an area-constrained search (e.g., Corn and Bury 1990). Area-constrained searches include many transect or quadrat sampling techniques. In particular, transects are useful for sampling across different microhabitats (Heyer et al. 1994). Time spent searching may or may not be recorded. Area-constrained searches also are useful when a discrete habitat can be completely surveyed, suitable habitat is sufficiently patchy as to require frequent starting and stopping of the clock during timed searches, or if density or relative abundance estimates are needed. Time-constrained searches are particularly useful for inventories, especially when contiguous habitat patches are sizeable and somewhat homogeneous in character. The biases of this method, including unequal search effort among microhabitat types or searchers and skewed relative abundance estimates, may be a minor issue for inventories geared toward assessing the presence of rare salamanders. Biases can be controlled by field training, oversight of field-searchers by a crew leader, and moving rules (not spending overlong at any one microsite).

For Survey and Manage salamanders, methods were developed by integrating knowledge of the life history and general ecology of these species, from ongoing and published studies of these animals, from data compiled on survey capture rates (number of salamanders per person-hour), and knowledge of surveys during which animals were not found yet the surveys were conducted during apparently optimum environmental conditions at known sites of populations. Common findings for all of these species were the potential for very low capture rates (e.g., less than 0.5 captures per person-hour of effort) and knowledge of visits to known sites under apparently optimum environmental conditions when no animals could be found. Common elements of surveys developed for these species include a conservative level of effort considered necessary to detect populations that may be patchily-distributed in space and whose surface-activity may be patchily distributed in time (i.e., within a season). Reconnaissance-level surveys that extensively cover potential habitats and multiple site visits were thought to be essential features of the developed methods.

The protocols that have been developed vary somewhat with species and habitat (Tables 1 and 2). A time-constrained search is outlined for the three southern species and for some habitat types of Van Dyke's salamanders, whereas transect sampling is recommended for Larch Mountain salamanders and other potential habitats of Van Dyke's salamanders. Timed searches have undergone extensive field-testing (e.g. papers in Ruggiero et al. 1991, Szaro et al. 1988) and have been successful in determining presence/absence. The times needed to survey for Shasta salamanders (8 person-hours per 10 acres of habitat per visit, 4 visits to designate "absence") and Van Dyke's salamanders (8+1 person-hour per 10 acres of habitat per visit, 3 visits to designate "absence") are roughly twice that for the southern Plethodon species, the Del Norte and Siskiyou Mountains salamanders (4 person-hours per 10 acres of habitat visit, 3 visits). Although all these species are rare endemics, the southern Plethodon species may be more easily found when present. The Del Norte salamander, for example, can be abundant at a discrete site. Shasta salamanders, Larch Mountain salamanders, and some populations of Van Dyke's salamanders may be very patchily-distributed, some having less-clear habitat associations, and with animals in low abundance when present. Consequently, different survey techniques have been developed. Modified area-constrained search methods are described for Larch Mountain salamanders ("belt-transects", or multiple parallel transects, Heyer et al. 1994) and some habitats of Van Dyke's salamanders (belt-transects, grouped belt-transects). Belt-transects have been field-tested and found effective in detecting patchy populations of Larch Mountain salamanders. This method is extensive and yields approximately 1 to 7 acres of habitat surveyed per person-hour (average value, 3.2 acres/person-hour).

Inventory errors, in particular, in designating "absence" to a site in which Survey and Manage salamanders are actually present, were addressed in several ways. First, restrictive microclimate conditions should be met before surveys are conducted (Table 1). Surface activities of these animals have shown associations with season, and more specifically, limited temperature and moisture regimes. These microclimate constraints are built into the protocols, with variation among species reflecting our knowledge of the different species' ecology. Second, multiple site visits are needed to designate absence. Three visits to a site was considered sufficient for most species (Table 2), given these visits were conducted during appropriate site-conditions (Table 1) and separated by the recommended time-intervals. The time interval between visits should be ample to allow for the further development of suitable site conditions (i.e. moisture, temperature) and to conservatively account for undefined circumstances of species' activity patterns. For example, moisture conditions may become more suitable as the Fall season progresses because the first rains may not penetrate the substrate. In the Spring, both moisture and temperature regimes may become more suitable as the season progresses. The time interval between site-visits was perceived to be longer in the southern portion of the Northwest Forest Plan, than in the northern section (Table 2). Frequency of major storm events figured into this difference, as well as the relative contribution of snow-melt to substrate moisture regimes, the activity seasons of the salamanders, and the occurrences of known site visits during apparently optimum conditions when animals were not detected. In the south, minimum site-conditions may be met early in a season, but the animals might not be surface-active at that time. An interval of 3 to 4 weeks between surveys allows for additional development of site conditions to trigger salamander activity.

Two other measures may reduce survey errors, are suggested for some species, and should be used with discretion by the field biologist: visits to known sites prior to sampling potential sites to assess salamander activity, and collection of voucher photographs or specimens. If logistics permit, surveys of nearby Reference Sites, harboring known Survey and Manage amphibian populations, may be conducted prior to conducting surveys of new potential sites. Detecting the presence of these inconspicuous animals at close Reference Sites, suggests that they would be surface-active in an adjacent site, if they occur there. However, use of Reference Sites may overly-disturb the few easily-accessible known sites. This potential problem should be kept in mind for all species. At this time, photographic voucher specimens are suggested for all species. Vouchers address potential misidentification, and a costly error in known site designation if the species were actually absent. Color is variable in the Van Dyke's salamander, and it may be sympatric with several other Plethodon species with similar features (Leonard et al. 1993); identification errors may be more likely to occur with this species. Questions in species identification may also be addressed by accurately marking locations and taking live vouchers to species-experts for identification, taking care to maintain cool moist conditions during transport. Permits may be required for such "taking" and should be obtained prior to collecting.

Table 1: Main constraints of field sampling for Survey and Manage amphibians.

Table 2: General comparison of protocols for Survey and Manage Amphibians.

F. Recommended Training.

To conduct surveys for these amphibians, knowledge of the species that may be found during sampling (including sympatric salamanders in addition to Survey and Manage species) is required. These Component/Strategy 2 animals are generally inconspicuous. Individuals and populations can be patchily distributed, burrowed deep below the surface, active during a limited window of time of suitable microclimate conditions, and nocturnal. Knowledge of appropriate survey methods, microhabitat associations, microclimate constraints for surface activity, as well as species identification are needed to reliably find these organisms. The protocols are intended to be fairly simply implemented, however, attention to the details of the methods is crucial for reliable sampling. Training and experience reduce errors in field sampling for amphibians, thus opportunities for field crews to gain both are recommended.